History, Growth, and Role of Translation in India
Translation in India has a rich and varied history, deeply interwoven with its cultural, religious, and intellectual development. Its significance lies in bridging linguistic and cultural gaps across different eras:
1. Ancient India
Historical Context:
Translation in ancient India began as an oral tradition, where texts were preserved and passed down through memorization. Later, with the advent of writing, this tradition extended to manuscripts.
Sanskrit served as the primary language of scholarship, philosophy, and religious texts, while Prakrit, Pali, and Dravidian languages catered to regional and popular needs.
Key Contributions:
Buddhist Texts: Buddhist scholars like Kumārajīva translated Indian texts like the Tripitaka into Chinese, spreading Indian philosophy and thought to East Asia.
Upanishads and Vedas: Interpretations and translations of these texts into various regional languages helped disseminate complex philosophical ideas.
Epics: The Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into regional languages such as Tamil (Kamba Ramayanam), Bengali, and Telugu, making them accessible to local populations.
Role:
Translation acted as a medium for spiritual and cultural unification across diverse linguistic communities.
It allowed ideas to flow between scholars, regions, and even nations, fostering the growth of literature and philosophy.
2. Medieval India
Historical Context:
This period saw a confluence of Hindu, Islamic, and other cultures, necessitating translation as a bridge between different communities. Persian, Arabic, and regional languages played a crucial role.
Key Contributions:
Persian Translations: During the Mughal era, Persian became the court language. Emperor Akbar initiated translations of key Sanskrit texts, such as the Mahabharata (Razmnama) and Upanishads, into Persian.
Bhakti and Sufi Movements: Saints like Kabir and Mira Bai popularized translations of devotional poetry, making it comprehensible to common people.
Regional Growth: Works in Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, and other languages often included translations and adaptations of Sanskrit and Persian texts.
Role:
Translation facilitated cultural synthesis, blending Indian and Persian traditions.
It promoted the dissemination of religious and philosophical ideas among diverse communities.
3. Translation in Modern India
Historical Context:
Modern translation in India emerged during British colonial rule, with English becoming the language of administration and education.
Translating indigenous works into English and vice versa became a political and cultural necessity.
Key Contributions:
Colonial Impact: The British translated texts like the Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti, and other classical works into English to better understand Indian traditions and laws.
Indian Renaissance: Indian reformers and scholars like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee translated religious and literary texts to revive India’s cultural heritage.
Post-Independence: The Sahitya Akademi and National Book Trust (NBT) have played a significant role in promoting translations of regional literature, fostering a sense of national unity.
Global Recognition: Translators like A. K. Ramanujan and Arunava Sinha have introduced Indian regional literature to the global audience.
Role:
Translation has helped preserve India’s diverse literary traditions by making them accessible across regions and languages.
It fosters a deeper understanding of India's multicultural identity and promotes national integration.
Conclusion
Translation in India has evolved as a dynamic and integral process, reflecting the country's linguistic diversity and cultural complexity. From ancient religious texts to modern literature, it has played a pivotal role in unifying India's diverse cultural and intellectual heritage.
In the context of translation studies, "adaptation" and "borrowing" are two important strategies used to convey meaning from a source language (SL) to a target language (TL). Below is a detailed examination of these terms:
Adaptation
Adaptation refers to a translation strategy where the translator modifies cultural references, idioms, or context-specific elements in the source text to suit the target audience's cultural framework or linguistic preferences. It often involves re-creating the meaning or effect of the original text rather than strictly adhering to its form.
Key Features:
1. Cultural Substitution: Replacing SL cultural references with TL equivalents.
Example: Translating "Thanksgiving" (SL: English) to "harvest festival" (TL: a culture without Thanksgiving).
2. Idiomatic Adjustments: Rewriting idioms or expressions to ensure clarity and relatability in the TL.
Example: The English idiom "raining cats and dogs" might be adapted to "it's raining heavily" in other languages.
3. Creative Rewriting: Ensuring the text evokes the same emotions or achieves similar goals in the TL, even if the wording changes significantly.
Advantages:
Enhances cultural relevance and emotional resonance.
Makes texts more accessible to diverse audiences.
Challenges:
Risks overstepping fidelity to the original text.
Requires a deep understanding of both SL and TL cultures.
Borrowing
Borrowing involves using words or expressions directly from the source language without translation. This method is often used when there is no direct equivalent in the target language or when the borrowed term has cultural or contextual significance.
Key Features:
1. Direct Importation: Words are retained in their original form or with minimal phonetic adjustments.
Example: "Pizza" in Italian is used unchanged in English.
2. Loanwords and Loan Translations: Sometimes, borrowed words are modified to fit the phonological or morphological rules of the TL.
Example: "Entrepreneur" (French) is used in English but pronounced differently.
3. Common in Technical or Brand Names: Frequently used in scientific, technological, and brand-related contexts.
Example: "Wi-Fi" is borrowed globally.
Advantages:
Preserves the authenticity of cultural or technical terms.
Facilitates global communication of ideas or innovations.
Challenges:
May confuse TL audiences unfamiliar with SL terms.
Excessive borrowing can lead to linguistic dilution in the TL.
Comparative Insight
While adaptation seeks to transform the source text to fit the TL culture, borrowing maintains the original elements to preserve authenticity or address linguistic gaps. A skilled translator often balances these strategies depending on the purpose of the translation, audience expectations, and cultural context.
Key Terms of Translation Studies (Contd.)
1. Source Language (SL):
The original language from which a text is translated.
Example: Translating a Hindi novel into English, Hindi is the source language.
2. Target Language (TL):
The language into which the text is translated.
Example: In the above case, English is the target language.
3. Equivalence:
Achieving similar meaning, tone, and effect in the target language as in the source language.
Example: Idioms like "Break a leg" in English can be translated to "¡Mucha mierda!" in Spanish, which also conveys good luck.
4. Literal Translation:
Translating word-for-word without considering context.
Example: Translating "He kicked the bucket" literally into Hindi would lose its meaning as an idiom for death.
5. Dynamic Equivalence (Functional Equivalence):
Translating meaning and effect rather than words.
Example: "It’s raining cats and dogs" could be translated to "मूसलधार बारिश हो रही है" in Hindi, focusing on the meaning.
6. Transcreation:
Creative adaptation of content, often used in marketing or literary translation.
Example: Adapting a slogan like Nike's "Just Do It" to something culturally relevant in another language.
7. Domestication:
Making the text culturally familiar to the target audience.
Example: Replacing foreign food items in a novel with local equivalents.
8. Foreignization:
Retaining elements of the source culture to preserve authenticity.
Example: Keeping traditional Japanese terms like kimono or samurai untranslated in English texts.
Translation Tools
1. Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools:
Software that helps translators manage and translate texts more efficiently.
Examples:
SDL Trados Studio: Uses translation memory to suggest past translations.
MemoQ: Offers terminology management and collaboration features.
2. Machine Translation (MT):
Automated translation by software without human input.
Examples:
Google Translate: Provides instant translations but may lack context.
DeepL Translator: Known for more natural translations in European languages.
3. Translation Memory (TM):
A database that stores previously translated phrases or sentences for reuse.
Example: Translating legal documents where repetitive language can be reused.
4. Terminology Management Tools:
Tools that manage specialized vocabulary for consistency.
Examples:
TermBase
SDL MultiTerm
5. Localization Tools:
Tools for adapting software, websites, and games to different languages and cultures.
Examples:
Crowdin
Smartling
Types of Translation
1. Literary Translation:
Translating novels, poems, and plays while preserving artistic expression.
Example: Translating Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger into French.
2. Technical Translation:
Translation of manuals, guides, and scientific texts requiring domain-specific knowledge.
Example: Translating a user manual for a smartphone.
3. Legal Translation:
Translating legal documents like contracts, laws, and treaties.
Example: Translating international trade agreements.
4. Commercial Translation:
Translation of business documents like reports, marketing materials, and advertisements.
Example: Adapting a company’s product catalog for international markets.
5. Audiovisual Translation (AVT):
Translation for media content such as films and video games.
Types:
Subtitling: Adding translated text to videos.
Dubbing: Replacing original audio with translated audio.
Voice-over: Narration translation over original speech.
Example: Subtitling a Korean drama into English.
6. Machine Translation Post-Editing (MTPE):
Editing machine-translated text to improve quality.
Example: Proofreading and correcting Google Translate output for a website.
7. Localization:
Adapting content to suit cultural and linguistic norms of a specific region.
Example: Modifying a video game interface for Japanese users.
8. Back Translation:
Translating a translated text back into the original language to check accuracy.
Example: Translating a Hindi document into English and then back to Hindi to verify correctness.
9. Interpretation:
Oral translation of spoken language.
Types:
Simultaneous Interpretation: Real-time translation (e.g., UN meetings).
Consecutive Interpretation: Translating after the speaker pauses.
These concepts and tools are essential for effective and accurate translation across various fields and contexts.
